Protein metabolism Promotes protein synthesis Reduces protein breakdown Insulin Secretion Triggered by: High blood glucose (e.g., after meals) Amino acids GI hormones (incretins) Parasympathetic stimulation Inhibited by: Low blood glucose Sympathetic stimulation (adrenaline, noradrenaline) Lack of Insulin Diabetes Type 1 Diabetes Autoimmune destruction of beta cells Little or no insulin production Requires lifelong insulin therapy Type 2 Diabetes Insulin resistance + decreased insulin secretion May require insulin if oral drugs are insufficient Clinical Uses of Insulin Type 1 diabetes (always) Type 2 diabetes (if uncontrolled) Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) Hyperkalemia (shifts K+ into cells) Gestational diabetes Side Effects of Insulin Hypoglycemia (most common) Symptoms: sweating, tremor, confusion, headache Weight gain Lipodystrophy at injection site Allergic reactions (rare) Storage and Administration Injected subcutaneously (abdomen, thigh, arm) Rotate injection sites Store unopened vials in the fridge Opened insulin kept at room temp (up to 28 days, depends on type) Important Patient Education Monitor blood glucose regularly Match insulin with meals Treat hypoglycemia promptly (e.g., glucose tablets, juice) Never skip meals after rapid-acting insulin Know signs of low and high sugar What is Insulin

Willey S, Aasa-Chapman MMI, OFarrell S et al (2011) Extensive complement-dependent enhancement of HIV-1 by autologous non-neutralising antibodies at early stages of infection
Affecting digestion and satiety: GLP-1 slows gastric emptying, allowing food to remain in the stomach longer
All the samples (length = 16 mm, width = 4 mm, thick = 1 mm) were tested under 100% air humidity to prevent water evaporation during the examination
Ashrafian F, Keshavarz Azizi Raftar S, Lari A, et al
People sometimes refer to berberine as natures Ozempic, and it does have some blood sugar control benefits, like improving insulin sensitivity